The Common Reed Frog and Genetic Mutations

Genetic mutations within an organisms DNA can completely change the chances of survival of the organism over time. This is because a change in DNA could affect the phenotype or fitness it has in its environment. The Common Reed Frog is a West African Frog that is very different from most frog species. The Common Reed Frog can be found in subtropical or tropical dry forests. Something this species is able to do that is very unique is to change its sex in any single sex environment it is in in order to reproduce and keep the population big enough to survive. This happened over many generations, due to changes in its DNA structure; genetic mutations; allowing them to change gender when the environment they were in made it difficult or impossible to reproduce and keep the species fit for the environment. This could heavily affect the population because it will allow them to survive longer, even when there is only one sex in their population, because they could simply just switch sexes and fix the issue.

Another mutation that helps the Common Reed Frog is that the species has a large variety of colors. If the environment was to change, a mutation in the DNA of the frog for its skin color could help the frog, or hurt the frog in terms of camouflage. This possible mutation could help the species hide more easily, or be much more visible to their predators. If the camouflage is suited for the environment, then the species could grow and become much more fit in the environment, and have no problem surviving. If the camouflage is opposite of the environment, it could hurt their chances of survival, and make it much more difficult, requiring them to work much harder for their survival.

Controlled Habitat and Natural Selection

There are 12 white mice, 12 brown mice, and 12 black mice in a population in the forest. Some of the mice have long tails, some have medium sized tails, and others have really short tails. There are 36 mice in total. Four each of the white, brown, and black mice have long tails; four each of the white, brown, and black tails have medium sized tails, and four each of the white, brown, and black mice have really short tails. They will be put in a scenario and the possible outcomes will be noted. This will show the frequency of each phenotype will change within the populations. Also, this is an example of natural selection within a population.

33% of the population is white. 33% of the population is brown. 33% of the population is black. Also; 33% of the population has a long tail. 33% of the population has a medium tail. 33% of the population has a short tail.

The mice population is put into a large forest environment for 9 weeks. The only predators in this island are snakes. The environment has some very light habitats that are easy for the white population to blend in with. What can be predicted from this?

The snakes get hungry and begin their search for food. They are able to find the black mice the easiest, and these 12 black mice and one brown mouse are all gone within the first four weeks of nine weeks. During the next week, the brown and white mice mate together making the new mice have a phenotype of very light brown colored fur, allowing them to camouflage as well. Within the next weeks, the dark brown mice are targeted, removing them from the island population. At the end of the 9 weeks, the snakes are removed and the mice population is observed on the phenotype of fur color. Results show that the light brown and white fur mix fur coat was the most fit for the environment on the island. Even though the white mice were much hidden within the environment, the snakes could find them easier than the light brown ones. The black population died out because they did not reproduce offspring with more “fit” qualities such as white OR brown fur. The white population ended with 13 white mice. The brown mice ended with 0 mice with this phenotype, and the brown and white fur population was 7 at the end of the 9 week period. The white population grew by one member, making the white mice have 65 percent of the new overall island mice population. The brown and white grew to be 45% of the overall population, and grew from 0 to 7, having a 100% increase. The black mice were 0% of the overall population, and the brown population was 0% of the overall population. This shows how natural selection can affect the frequency of each phenotype within a population.

Peacocks and Reproductive Isolation

There are three types of Reproductive Isolation; behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, and geographical isolation. All three types can break a species up into two or more species over long periods of time. Although all three can each affect different species, behavioral may be the type of reproductive isolation that affects a population the most.

Each individual organism has its own behaviors, no matter what species it may be. These behaviors are passed on genetically from generation to generation. As they get passed, they change because they are different than the others previous to them. As these behaviors become more and more different, it is possible that the organisms will get to a point where they will no longer mate with each other. This can be for a large variety of different behavioral changes within the species or the interests of or dislikes of the organism or species; or the individual organism. If the behaviors change enough to the point of separation due to the differences in behavior, over generations time, the groups can separate into two or more different species.
This would lead to the inability to mate with the other species even though they were once one species that used to mate together. The gene pools would then be completely different over time from the new species. There could be changes in the color of the species, the sharpness of claws or teeth, the length of their tails, or other unique features that may be present within the species.

One example of behavioral isolation is in peacocks. Peacocks are a beautiful type of bird. Males have large beautiful and colorful feathers whereas the females have more dull brown colored feathers. The females choose their mates based on their interest in the feather color of the males. If the males begin to develop a large amount of one colored feather, the females will begin to choose preferences. They will eventually separate into two species since certain females’ wont mate with certain males. This is behavioral separation and the two different “species” of peacocks (created over many generations) will no longer be able to mate/breed with each other.

Behavioral isolation is very common among many types of animals and many species.

Fishing and Genetic Drift

Fishing is an activity that millions partake in every year. Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish in their habitats, including ponds, lakes, oceans and other bodies of water. Fishing is a recreational sport for many of people, and a job for many others. There are about 38 million commercial fisherman and fish farmers, providing jobs to over 500 million people who often catch and sell fish for food supply. Other fishermen are considered recreational fishers who go fishing during their free time. Through these millions of fishermen, fish get removed from their natural habitat and are either moved to different locations, or are killed and processed for food. Like many other animals, some fish are much more popular than others.

Tuna is a very popular, and a very well-known species of fish that many people enjoy eating and/or catching to feed others. Fisheries or other commercial fishing businesses catch and sell thousands and thousands of tuna fish every year. This has brought many changes and consequences, and will continue to if tuna fish are not able to reproduce enough to keep their populations striving. This means that the diversity of tuna fish, or the differences of tuna fish is going to decrease as those different traits get removed from the process, killing off those exact traits from getting passed on to the next generation. Fishermen usually prefer to obtain larger breeds of tuna fish. There are tuna of all sizes, but if fishermen keep only the larger tuna fish, leaving the medium sized and smaller sized tuna which will continue to reproduce, there will eventually be no more large tuna. This is because the diversity of the population of large tuna reduced their ability to survive and reproduce. If the population of the large tuna goes extinct by getting killed off, the traits of the large tuna die off with them, resulting in the future populations of medium and small populations unable to have any of the traits unique to the large tuna.

Another example of what could happen with the tuna is that they would completely change their structures or; ways of living. Some of the large tuna have a beautiful green color to their bodies. If fishermen preferred tuna with the green rather than blue or purple, the green population would decrease, leaving a higher percentage of blue and purple tuna. If the green tuna doesn’t mate faster than the rate of reduction within the population in order to bring up the percentage of green species, the green population will struggle to survive and could possibly go extinct, leaving no green tuna to reproduce anymore, reducing the diversity of the tuna population.

Removing the Electron Transport Chain from Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration converts oxygen and sugar (glucose) into water, carbon dioxide, and energy (ATP). All eukaryotic celled organisms go through the process of cellular respiration which takes place in the mitochondrion. There are three connected processes that complete cellular respiration, each producing a certain amount of ATP molecules. The three processes are Glycolysis, the Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle), and the electron transport chain (ETC). Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell which splits glucose (6 carbon molecules), into 2 pyruvic acids’ which each are 3 carbon molecules. The Kreb’s Cycle occurs in the matrix. It uses 1 carbon from the pyruvic acid and is used to make carbon dioxide when it combines with 2 molecules of oxygen. The other 2 carbon molecules combine with 4 carbon molecules to create a citric acid compound consisting of 6 carbon molecules. Two of these carbon molecules break apart and split up, combining with molecules of oxygen to make 2 compounds of carbon dioxide This process creates a total of 3 carbon dioxide molecules and continues to repeat and recycle the remaining 4 carbon molecules. The final process is the Electron Transport Chain which creates the most ATP energy molecules. Electrons move from NADH and go to the electron carrier. The electrons then travel through ETC and force hydrogen ions into the inter-membrane space of the mitochondrion. Then, the electron readies the last electron carrier and combines hydrogen ion and oxygen to create H₂O.  The inter-membrane space is hypertonic so the hydrogen ions travel through ATP synthase to the matrix. The ATP synthase joins ADP and phosphate in order to create ATP molecules.

The Electron Transport Chain is a very important process of cellular respiration. Although all three stages of Cellular Respiration generate and produce energy (ATP), ETC produces the most of the three. If ETC no longer took place during the process of Cellular Respiration; it would cause many changes to occur. Eukaryotic cells are within all animals, plants, fungi, and protista organisms. This means that a change in Cellular Respiration would affect all these organisms because the mitochondrion will not produce as many ATP molecules, causing a loss of energy and affecting their ability to perform. The ETC produces 32-34 of 36-38 ATP molecules in each process, which would be a 90% decrease in the amount of energy produced each cycle. The effects of this could result in the mitochondrion being pushed and exerting them too much, or a deep decrease in energy levels and ability to perform. The Electron Transport Chain is composed mostly of proteins, which help a person’s body, as well as other organisms, to build tissues, muscles, and other vital parts of the body structure. Loss of this could result in very deathly results, causing major problems due to the lack of stored protein.

Finally, the ETC uses oxygen directly. This would result in unused/unchanged oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. This could possibly lead to the inability to convert oxygen into CO₂, carbon dioxide, and result in an overdose of oxygen within the body and atmosphere, not being able to get rid of it by turning it to carbon dioxide. This would then affect organisms, such as plants, who consume CO₂.

As you can see by these possibilities, the removal of the Electron Transport Chain could have devastating results for all organisms containing eukaryotic cells and that go through the process of Cellular Respiration, including all animals, plants, protista, and fungi organisms.

Removing Carbon Dioxide from Photosynthasis

 

There are two main reactions, or processes, that occur during the process of photosynthesis within a plant. Sunlight begins by hitting the chlorophyll in Photosystem II and exciting the electrons (e-). Then, these excited electrons move to Photosystem I. The excited electrons cause water, H2O to break apart into oxygen, hydrogen, and more electrons. These electrons then move to the electron transport chain, ETC, where they force hydrogen into the thylakoid membrane. Inside the thylakoid, there is too many hydrogen ions which causes an imbalance which then forces ATP synthase (protein) to move hydrogen ions out. This causes ADP to make ATP. ATP then moves to the light independent reaction. It breaks apart carbon dioxide, CO2, to make new carbon molecules called PGA and RUBP. These carbon molecules produce glucose, food for the plants. This process is very complicated and detailed. If one factor is removed, the entire process could change and affect life in very drastic and possibly have some devastating outcomes.

When you remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the process, your outcome could completely change the world as we know it. Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars (glucose) and oxygen. Sunlight + 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2. Carbon dioxide molecules are an essential part of the photosynthesis process. Without CO2, glucose would not be possible because it requires 6 molecules of carbon. Oxygen would not be made either, because oxygen consists of the 6O2 molecules that were left from the carbon dioxide equation/compound. Without glucose, plants would be forced to adapt to a different type of glucose made of a different compound, or a completely different food and energy source altogether. The sudden removal of CO2 would result in an inability to adapt and would kill the plant due to the lack of food and much needed nutrients for survival. Also, the oxygen supply in Earth’s atmosphere would not last forever. If all plants were unable to produce oxygen, humans, animals, and any other organisms that survive on oxygen would use up all the supply and then leave their supply empty, causing mass extinctions. Changing photosynthesis, a process that is a required resource for most life on Earth, would result in extinction of hundreds of thousands of species, leaving very minimal species of organisms alive. There would be no plant life or human activity of any kind if CO2 was removed from Photosynthesis.

Ocean Acidification and Possible Effects on Trophic Levels and Food Webs

                Ocean acidification is a huge climatic disaster that is ongoing due to high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere that then is absorbed into the ocean and reducing pH levels of the ocean water, home to millions of marine organisms. This affects all life within the water, changing their way of living by forcing them to adapt to new living conditions, or to move to better, more suitable living conditions.

 

  

              Marine food webs are changed greatly when organisms leave their habitats, traveling possibly hundreds of miles away to new locations, and creating or finding a new habitat that they find suitable to survive in, or becoming extinct due to the inability to survive with the current living conditions. This would mean that the other organisms in their ‘old’ food web, too, would have to adapt to the less variety of foods available for their taking, making it difficult for them to survive without adapting to the change. Also, they would be forced to adapt to the lack of nutrients found within that organism that is no longer within their locations.

                One example of an energy pyramid is the phytoplankton and seaweed, the producers/autotrophs of the energy pyramid. The primary consumers or the organisms that consume the phytoplankton and seaweed for their energy are the zooplankton and the cockles. The organisms that consume these organisms, then, are the juvenile stage of fish/jellyfish, small fish, crustaceans, and sea stars. The fourth level of this energy pyramid of organisms is the second level of carnivorous consumers, larger fish who consume the smaller fish and sea stars. Squid would then consume the large fish, and albatross, dolphins, and sharks are at the top of the pyramid, consuming the squids from the lower level. If ocean acidification affected the water enough to require any of these organisms to adapt, or to need to relocate and find a new habitat, then all the levels would be affected because of this. If there were no levels of sea life after the autotrophs, then there would be an abundant amount of them, and they would fight for places and resources to produce with. And, if a middle level was to be removed, the levels above would be forced to relocate to a location that has organisms remaining that they are adapted to eating, or would have to change their diet and readapt themselves to eating the lower level organisms.

Coral reefs are living organisms that provide shelter to fish in the sea. They are homes to thousands of different fish types, and are deeply affected by ocean acidification. They are found to be one of the most important ecosystems on the Earth. So what would happen if they were to be killed due to the high amounts of changes in the pH levels of the ocean water? They could become an unsuitable habitat for the fish that take shelter, possibly causing these fish to go extinct. Or even the coral reefs themselves, going extinct as well. These coral reef habitats are critical to many species of fishes’ lives. Researchers find ocean acidification to be a big factor in the degradation and collapse of many of these ecosystems and habitats all over the world.

Ocean acidification is a real problem, affecting marine ecosystems and marine food webs all around the world. It can completely change an ecosystem and food web, or more drastically, over time, destroy it. Many species of organisms could go extinct and could change the living styles of many other organisms.

Removing Denitrification from the Nitrogen Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle cycles nitrogen throughout the Earth, changing its form to other forms, including N2 (nitrogen gas), NO3 (nitrate ions), NO2 (nitrite ions), and NH3 (ammonia). Nitrogen cycles and goes through various abiotic and biotic items, changing form often, and continuing to cycle constantly. N2, the nitrogen gas form of nitrogen makes up around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere. NO3 and NO2 are nitrogen forms that are found in waste products of living organisms, as well as within organisms that are deceased (dead) and/or decaying. Human activity helps to release nitrogen in the form of nitrate into the atmosphere which is often then used in plant fertilizers. N2 can only be used by some organisms in this form; other organisms can use nitrogen once it has changed its form through processes such as bacterial nitrogen fixation, a process in which bacteria organisms, legumes, or atmospheric nitrogen fixation, to change its form from N2 to the other forms of nitrogen. On the other hand, a different type of bacteria in the soil goes through denitrification converting NO3, NO2, and NH3 to N2 and releasing this nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere.

Denitrification is very important to the Nitrogen Cycle. If it were to be removed, then many things would be affected in return. When nitrogen gas, N2, moves into the soil and goes through bacterial nitrogen fixation, it is turned into NO2, NO3, or NH3. Once it is turned into one of these products, plants and other organisms can use it and then it eventually gets passed on to other organisms. For example, when a primary consumer consumes a producer, the nitrogen gets passed on from that producer to the primary consumer. It will eventually go through soil bacterial nitrogen fixation and be released into the atmosphere, however, without denitrification; it will not be transformed back into N2 or get released back into the atmosphere. Eventually, over time, N2 will no longer be N2 because it will all be ‘stuck’ in organisms and the soil. N2 currently makes up 78% of the atmosphere, so the effect it could have on Earth’s atmosphere could be very severe. Also N2 helps humans in food digestion and overall body growth. It forms 3% of our body weight. It is too, an essential component in cellular respiration. It is used to help make ATP (energy) molecules for organisms.

Another use for N2 is a variety of industrial uses. Industries and businesses use N2 to be able to produce their products, to complete a variety of different projects. Two types of industries that use N2 are oil and gas industries. Both of these industries are essential in keeping life as we know it from being turned completely upside down. By removing all the nitrogen gas from the atmosphere, it all becomes too much for the needs of organisms it is transferred into and there would be no way to rid of it, as well as a total disturbance in everything that uses the N2 form of nitrogen to operate properly. If N2 runs out by being stuck in other forms of nitrogen, the effects will be very noticeable.

Too many NO2 molecules are very harmful for all living organisms. In the video, “The Nitrogen Cycle – It’s Easy!” by MyFishCare101, the illustrator shows a picture at the time of 1:03 that shows this by drawing arrows which represent nitrites and pointing up towards a dead fish within the aquarium. This can happen with anything that is too abundant for our needs and ability to rid of it.

 

Removing Human Activities from the Carbon Cycle

      The Carbon Cycle is one of 3 major cycles that occur on Earth. There are major processes within the carbon cycle that help carbon to cycle from atmosphere, underground, and to the atmosphere once more. These include geochemical processes, biological processes, mixed biogeochemical processes, and human activities. Photosynthesis takes the CO2 from the atmosphere and uses it to make oxygen both on land and in the ocean. Animals then feed on the plants, the CO2 now in their bodies and released back into the atmosphere through Respiration, which is simply “breathing” it out into the atmosphere. Animals die and become fossil fuels over time after they decompose. Humans use these fossils fuels and burn them, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere once again, as well as other things such as burning trees, the fire burning the plants and releasing the carbon dioxide, and factories releasing it in the chemicals and such that they use for products. Volcanic activity also returns carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

 

So, what happens when you remove human activities from this process?

      Human activities include mining, cutting and burning forests, burning fossil fuels and many other activities in which release carbon molecules that are stored in the items being altered into the atmosphere. About half of this carbon is slowly eating away at our ozone layer and contributing to Global Warming, a very large concern with the health of our planet. Carbon is a natural resource, so why is it harming our planet? The more carbon that is released into the atmosphere at once, is throwing the natural balance off. Too much carbon or not enough carbon in the atmosphere can be a very bad thing.

      By removing these activities from Earth completely, the carbon cycle is greatly affected. It takes many years for dead plants and animals to decompose and release carbon into the atmosphere naturally. This would mean that the carbon dioxide would be ‘stored’ or ‘hidden’ within the plants or animals until it releases them back into the atmosphere, or decomposes enough to release them back. Also, tons of pounds of carbon dioxide is beneath Earth’s surface, contained within fossil fuels under land soil and under the ocean floor. This means that the carbon dioxide will not be in the atmosphere for many years, always going into reservoirs and not returning to the atmosphere for many years. This too could throw the balance of carbon dioxide levels on Earth off. However, it could be a very good thing for the health of Earth for a long time because of Global Warming. By removing high levels of carbon dioxide emissions from the atmosphere, the amount of ozone that is being destroyed by them will too be reduced, causing Global Warming to reduce over time and not harm Earth’s ozone layer in the atmosphere.

 

Removing Clouds from the Water Cycle

     How would removing clouds really affect us? What is their purpose? How are they formed? Why are they there? Clouds are a big part of the water cycle. Clouds are in the atmosphere and consist of water that is condensed, making the water into the clouds. Water cycles through the atmosphere, in the clouds and it precipitates, reaching the earth’s surface. It does this by raining, snowing, sleet, or hail, or any other form of water falling from the sky. Once it hits the Earth’s surface, it goes through a process called surface run off into rivers, lakes, oceans or any other body of water. Eventually this water will evaporate or will go through transpiration and return back into the atmosphere to repeat this process over and over again.

     Without clouds (condensation), there would be no storage place in the atmosphere to evaporate or go through transpiration to other than the air which contains water vapor. The water molecules would just cycle through the bodies of water, making it difficult to reach the middle of large land masses without pipes or other ways to travel there without water being underneath the surface.

     Without clouds, there is no precipitation, no rain, no snow, and no more hail. Humidity will still be present since there is water vapor in the air, however. In short, water would not cycle easily or naturally without the use of a variety of different objects such as underground canals or pipes that we have created-unnatural resources.

     This could affect life on in earth in that the water we are used to having may not travel to the places we normally need it, causing nature to suffer, plants to die or force everything to adapt, if able than they have a chance of surviving, but if unable, the chance of going extinct or endangered is increased.

 

This is an example of a freshwater system. This system moves water to different areas without it being cycled in the atmosphere using pipes and other resources that can move water from one place to another.